Parahyangan originated from Sundanese words which means "the abode of hyangs"

Parahyangan

The total surface area of this area is approximately a little less than 1/6 of Java. Parahyangan is bordered in the West by the kabupaten of Cianjur, in the North by those of Karawang and Indramayu, in the North-East by those of Majalengka and Kuningan, in the East by the Tasikmalaya.
The name "Parahyangan" is originated from Sundanese words which means "the abode of hyangs ". Parahyangan is a mountainous region, and ancient Indonesians believed that the gods resided in the mountain tops. The "hyang" derivation in other placenames on the island of Java, as in the Dieng Plateau in the centre, or the Hyang Plateau in the east.
A Sundanese legend of Sangkuriang contain the memory of the prehistoric ancient lake in Bandung basin highland, which suggest that Sundanese already inhabit the region since stone age era. Another popular Sundanese proverb and legend mentioned about the creation of Parahyangan highlands, the heartland of Sundanese realm; "When the hyangs were smiling, the land of Parahyangan was created". This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, as well as suggesting its natural beauty.
The train serving Jakarta - Bandung is called Kereta Api Parahyangan. Today it is merged with Argo Gede to become Argo Parahyangan.
Parahyangan is a part of the former Sunda Kingdom. The inland mountainous region of Parahyangan was considered as sacred place in Sunda Wiwitan beliefs. The kabuyutan or mandala of Jayagiri was mentioned in ancient Sundanese texts and located somewhere in Parahyangan highlands, probably north of modern day Bandung in the slopes of Mount Tangkuban Perahu. After the fall of Sunda Kingdom in 16th century, Priangan was administrated by the nobles and aristocrats of Cianjur, Sumedang and Ciamis. Those princes claimed as the rightful heir and the descendants of Sunda kings lineage, King Siliwangi. Although the dominant power at that time was held by Banten and Cirebon Sultanates, the Sundanese aristocrats of Parahyangan highland enjoyed relatively internal freedom and autonomy.
In 1617, Sultan Agung of Mataram launched a military campaign throughout Java and vassalized Sultanate of Cirebon. In 1618 Mataram troops conquered Ciamis and Sumedang and ruled most of Parahyangan region. Mataram Sultanate was involved in a power contest with Dutch East India Company centered in Batavia. Later Mataram was gradually weakened through a struggle of successions of Javanese princes and Dutch involvements in internal Mataram court affair. To secure their positions, later Mataram kings have made significant concessions with VOC and have given up many of its lands that originally acquired by Sultan Agung, that including Priangan. Since early 18th century Priangan was under Dutch rule.
During the Dutch colonial time, this area was known as De Preanger. The capital of Preanger initially located in Tjiandjoer, and later moved to Bandung that gradually developed into an important settlement. By 19th century Colonial Dutch has established its holds over most of Java. And through the construction of Daendels' Java Great Post Road that connected Preanger plantation area with the port of Batavia and many other parts of Java, the Preanger was open for investment, exploitations and business. Preanger was an important and productive plantation area during Dutch East Indies era that produce coffee, tea, quinine and many cash crops that benefitted many of wealthy Dutch plantation owners. The famous Java coffee promoted world wide by the Dutch was actually the coffee grown in Parahyangan area. In early 20th century, Bandung grew into an important settlement and a well-planned city. The pre-war Bandung was designed as the new capital of Dutch East Indies, however the World War II brought this plan to end. After Indonesian independence, Parahyangan is considered as romantic historical name of mountainous region of West Java surrounding Bandung.

Related Sites for Parahyangan

• UNPAR | Universitas Katolik Parahyangan read Parahyangan
• Kota Baru Parahyangan | Beranda read Parahyangan
• Hotel Endah Parahyangan read Parahyangan
• Hotel Jelita Parahyangan in Jl. Pasirkaliki, Bandung, Indonesia read Parahyangan

The music of Indonesia demonstrates its cultural diversity

Music of Indonesia

The music of Indonesia demonstrates its cultural diversity, the local musical creativity, as well as subsequent foreign musical influences that shaped contemporary music scenes of Indonesia. Nearly thousands of Indonesian islands having its own cultural and artistic history and character. This results in hundreds of different forms of music, which often accompanies dance and theatre.
The musics of Java, Sumatra, Bali, Flores and other islands have been documented and recorded, and research by Indonesian and international scholars is ongoing. The music in Indonesia predates historical records, various Native Indonesian tribes often incorporate chants and songs accompanied with musics instruments in their rituals. Today the contemporary music of Indonesia is popular in the region, including neighboring countries; Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.
The musical identity of Indonesia as we know it today began as the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd-3rd century BC. Traditional musics of Indonesian tribes often uses percussion instruments, especially gendang and gongs. Some of them developed elaborate and distinctive musical instruments, such as sasando string instrument of Rote island, angklung of Sundanese people, and the complex and sophisticated gamelan orchestra of Java and Bali.
The most popular and famous form of Indonesian music is probably gamelan, an ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and spike fiddles along with bamboo flutes. Similar ensembles are prevalent throughout Indonesia and Malaysia, however gamelan is originated from Java, Bali, and Lombok.
In Central Java, gamelan is intricate and meticulously laid out. The central melody is played on a metallophone in the center of the orchestra, while the front elaboration and ornamentation on the melody, and, at the back, the gongs slowly punctuate the music. There are two tuning systems. Each Gamelan is tuned to itself, and the intervals between notes on the scale vary between ensembles. The metallophones cover four octaves, and include types like the slenthem, demung, saron panerus and balungan. The soul of the gamelan is believed to reside in the large gong, or gong ageng. Other gongs are tuned to each note of the scale and include ketuk, kenong and kempul. The front section of the orchestra is diverse, and includes rebab, suling, siter, bonang and gambang. Male choruses and female (pesindhen) solo vocalists are common.
With the arrival of the Dutch colonizers, a number system called kepatihan was developed to record the music. Music and dance at the time was divided into several styles based on the main courts in the area â€" Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Pakualaman and Mangkunegaran.
Gamelan from eastern Java is less well-known than central or western parts of the island. Perhaps most distinctive of the area is the extremely large gamyak drum. In West Java, formerly Sunda, has several types of gamelan. Gamelan Degung, gamelan salendro and tembang sunda are three primary types. The Osing Javanese minority in eastern Java are known for social music for weddings and other celebrations, called gandrung, as well as angklung, played by young amateur boys, which is very similar to Balinese gamelan.
Kecapi suling is a type of instrumental music that is highly improvisational and popular in parts of West Java that employs two instruments, kecapi and suling (bamboo flute). It is related to tembang sunda.
Angklung is a bamboo musical instrument native to Sundanese people of West Java. It is made out of bamboo tubes attached to a bamboo frame. The tubes are carved so that they have a distinctive resonant pitch when being vibrated. Each angklung only plays one note.
Kolintang or kulintang is a bronze and wooden percussion instrument native to eastern Indonesia and also The Philippines. In Indonesia it is particularly associated with Minahasa people of North Sulawesi, however it also popular in Maluku and Timor.
Sasando is a plucked string instrument native of Rote island of East Nusa Tenggara. The parts of sasando are a bamboo cylinder surrounded by several wedges where the strings are stretched, surrounded by a bag-like fan of dried lontar or palmyra leafs, functioned as the resonator of the instrument.
Musical performance from Tapanuli area of Batak of North Sumatra. Tapanuli ogong is a form of dance music played with a type of lute, trumpet and flute.
The diverse world of Indonesian music genres was the result of the musical creativity of its people, and also the subsequent cultural encounters with foreign musical influences into the archipelago. Next to distinctive native form of musics, several genres can traces its origin to foreign influences; such as gambus and qasidah from Middle Eastern Islamic music, keroncong from Portuguese influences, and dangdut with notable Hindi music influence.
Indonesian regional folk pop musics reflects the diversity of Indonesian culture and Indonesian ethnicity, mostly use local languages and a mix of western and regional style music and instruments. Indonesian folk music is quite diverse, and today embraces pop, rock, house, hip hop and other genres, as well as distinct Indonesian forms. There are several kinds of "ethnic" pop music, generally grouped together as Pop Daerah. These include Pop sunda, Pop Minang, Pop Batak, Pop Melayu, Pop Ambon, Pop Minahasa and others. Other than featuring the legacy of Lagu Daerah (regional traditional songs) of each regional cultures, the musician might also create some new compositions in their own native language.
The contemporary form of Islamic Middle eastern influenced musics in Indonesia is Debu, that featuring sufism approach on music to spread their message.
Perhaps the most famous song in the kroncong style is Bengawan Solo, written in 1940 by Gesang Martohartono, a Solonese musician. Written during the Japanese Imperial Army occupation of the island in World War II, the song became widely popular among the Javanese, and then later nationally when recordings were broadcast over the local radio stations. The song also became quite popular with the Japanese soldiers, and when they returned to Japan at the end of the war re-recordings of it (by Japanese artists) became best-sellers. Over the years it has been re-released many times by notable artists, mainly within Asia but also beyond (like Anneke Grxnloh), and in some places it is seen as typifying Indonesian music. Gesang himself remains the most renowned exponent of the style, which although it is seen now as a somewhat starchy and "dated" form is still popular among large segments of the population, particularly the older generation.
After the World War II and during Indonesian National Revolution and afterwards, kroncong was associated with patriotism, since many of Indonesian poets and patriotic songs authors uses kroncong and somewhat jazz fusion as the genre of their works. The patriotic theme and romantic wartime romance was obvious in the works of Ismail Marzuki, such as Rayuan Pulau Kelapa, Indonesia Pusaka, Sepasang Mata Bola, Keroncong Serenata and Juwita Malam. These patriotic songs can be sung in hymn or even in orchestra, but most often was sung in kroncong style known as kroncong perjuangan (struggle kroncong). The kroncong divas; Waldjinah, Sundari Sukoco and Hetty Koes Endang, was instrumental in reviving the style in the 1980s.
There is a style of kroncong native to Surakarta called langgam jawa, which fuses kroncong with the gamelan seven-note scale.
Early in the 20th century, kroncong was used in a type of theater called Komedi Stambul; adapted for this purpose, the music was called gambang kromong. Gambang kromong is quite prevalent in Betawi culture of Jakarta.
Dangdut is based around the singers, and stars include Rhoma Irama and Elvy Sukaesih, Mansyur S., A. Rafiq, Camelia Malik and Fahmy Shahab; along with Cici Paramida, Evie Tamala, Inul Daratista, Julia Perez and Dewi Perssik from younger generation.
A musical fusion style of traditional Javanese music and dangdut that prevalent in Javanese cultural sphere, mainly Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java. There is also Sundanese version of campursari prevalent in Bandung region of West Java. Perhaps its greatest current artist is Didi Kempot.
The contemporary music of Indonesia is diverse and vibrant. Throughout its history, Indonesian musicians were open to foreign influences of various music genres of the world. American jazz were heavily marketed in Asia, and foxtrots, tangos, rumbas, blues and Hawaiian guitar styles were all imitated by Indonesian musicians. As the result various genres were developed within Indonesian music frame; Indonesian pop, rock, jazz, and hip hop.
Indonesian music also plays a vital role in the Indonesian creative pop culture, especially as the soundtracks or theme songs of Indonesian cinema and sinetrons. Indonesian popular film Badai Pasti Berlalu (1977) were also produced successful soundtrack hit with same title in the same year, the soundtrack was remaked in 1999 with Chrisye as the main singer and rendered by Erwin Gutawa in orchestra style. In 2007 the film also being remaked again with new soundtrack that still featuring same songs performed by younger generation artist. Another popular Indonesian coming of age teen movie Ada Apa Dengan Cinta (2002) also produced successful soundtrack hits with most songs written and performed by Melly Goeslaw.
Today Indonesian music industry enjoyed nationwide popularity. Thanks to common culture and intelligible languages between Indonesian and Malay, Indonesian music enjoyed regional popularity in neighbouring countries such as Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. However the overwhelming popularity of Indonesian music in Malaysia had alarmed the Malaysian music industry. In 2008 Malaysian music industry demanded the restriction of Indonesian songs on Malaysian radio broadcasts.

Related Sites for Music of Indonesia

• Amazon.com: Indonesia: Music read Music of Indonesia
• Amazon.com: Indonesia: Music read Music of Indonesia
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• Indonesia music - Listen free at Last.fm read Music of Indonesia

History of Indonesia: Pre-colonial civilizations

History of Indonesia: Pre-colonial civilizations

The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,508 islands stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states.
Europeans arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. By the early 20th century Dutch dominance extended to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, but a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.
In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named "Flores Man" were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a species descended from Homo Erectus and reduced in size over thousands of years by a well known process called island dwarfism. Flores Man seems to have shared the island with modern Homo sapiens until only 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. In 2010 stone tools were discovered on Flores dating from 1 million years ago, which is the oldest evidence anywhere in the world that early man had the technology to make sea crossings at this very early time.

The archipelago was the latest ice age. Early spread from mainland Asia Australia. Homo sapiens reached years ago. In 2011 evidence neighbouring East Timor, showing early settlers had implication the technology needed reach Australia and other and consuming large as tuna.

formed during the thaw after humans to travelled by sea and eastward to New Guinea and the region by around 45,000 was uncovered in that 42,000 years ago these high-level maritime skills, and by to make ocean crossings to islands, as they were catching numbers of big deep sea fish such -

Ideal agricultural wet-field rice cultivation as allowed villages, towns, and the 1st century CE. These ethnic and tribal religions. temperature, abundant rain and wet rice cultivation. Such organised society in contrast to simpler form of cultivation elaborate social structure to

conditions, and the mastering of early as the 8th century BCE, small kingdoms to flourish by kingdoms evolved with their own Java's hot and even volcanic soil, was perfect for agriculture required a well dry-field rice which is a much that doesn't require an support it.

References to the kingdom in Java and Sumatra from 200 BCE. The earliest Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon an early Hindu statue of was found on the summit of Island. There is also Sunda territory in West Java and according to Dr Tony Archeology Agency, Jiwa Temple in also built around this time.

Dvipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu appear in Sanskrit writings archeological relic discovered in National Park, West Java, where Ganesha from the 1st century CE Mount Raksa in Panaitan archeological evidence of a kingdom in dating from the 2nd century, Djubiantono, the head of Bandung Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was -

A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. By the time of the European Renaissance, Java and Sumatra had already seen over a millennium of civilization and two major empires. One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE. Located in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its 5th-century king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor. On this monument, King Purnavarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.

Three rough plinths the 4th century are found in Mahakam River. The plinths bear Pallava script of India reading priests".

dating from the beginning of Kutai, East Kalimantan, near an inscription in the "A gift to the Brahmin -

The political history archipelago during the 7th to 11th Srivijaya based in Sumatra, also Java and constructed monument in the world. The centuries isn't well known due to states dominated this period; greatest of the pre-Islamic the west coast of the Malay of the Muslim trading

of Indonesian centuries was dominated by Sailendra that dominated central Borobudur, the largest Buddhist history of the 14th and 15th scarcity of evidence. Two major Majapahit in East Java, the Indonesian states, and Malacca on Peninsula, arguably the greatest empires.

Medang or previously Indianized kingdom based in Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th kingdom was moved from central Sindok. An eruption of Mount struggle may have caused the

known as Mataram was an Central Java around modern-day centuries. The center of the Java to east Java by Mpu Merapi volcano or a power move.

The 1st king of Mataram inscriptions in stone. The Prambanan in the vicinity of Dharmawangsa ordered the Old Javanese in 996.

was Sri Sanjaya and left monumental Hindu temple of Yogyakarta was built by Daksa. translation of the Mahabharata into -

The kingdom collapsed Dharmawangsa's reign under military the last major kings of reigned from 1016 until 1049. Bali and a relative of kingdom including Bali under

into chaos at the end of pressure from Srivijaya. One of Mataram was Airlangga who Airlangga was a son of Udayana of Dharmawangsa re-established the the name of Kahuripan.

Srivijaya was centred centre of present day "state" in the modern sense with centralized government to which the Srivijaya was a confederacy form royal heartland. It was a influence far beyond the coastal Southeast Asia. Trade was the as it is for most societies Srivijayan navy controlled the through the Strait of Malacca.

in the coastal trading Palembang. Srivijaya wasn't a defined boundaries and a citizens own allegiance. Rather of society centered on a thalassocracy and didn't extend its areas of the islands of driving force of Srivijaya just throughout history. The trade that made its way -

By the 7th century, the states of Srivijaya lined both Melaka. Around this time, suzerainty over large areas of of the Malay Peninsula. straits, the empire controlled and local trade. It until the 13th century. This culture throughout Sumatra, western Borneo. A stronghold of attracted pilgrims and scholars

harbors of various vassal coasts of the Straits of Srivijaya had established Sumatra, western Java, and much Dominating the Malacca and Sunda both the Spice Route traffic remained a formidable sea power spread the ethnic Malay the Malay Peninsula, and Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya from other parts of Asia.

A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, 1st Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. At that time Srivijaya was briefly a tributary of the Khmer empire and later the Sukhothai kingdom. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula.

Despite a lack of that Majapahit was the most pre-Islamic states. The Hindu eastern Java in the late 13th experienced what is often referred Indonesian history, when its southern Malay Peninsula, about 1293 to around 1500.

historical evidence, it is known dominant of Indonesia's Majapahit kingdom was founded in century, and under Gajah Mada it to as a "Golden Age" in influence extended to much of Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali from -

The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.

The earliest accounts archipelago date from the Abbasid early accounts the famous among early muslim abundance of precious spice trade galangal and many other spices.

of the Indonesian Caliphate, according to those Indonesian archipelago were sailors mainly due to its commodities such as nutmeg, cloves, -

Although Muslim South East Asia early in the among the inhabitants of the the 13th century in known that the spread of Islam archipelago, the fragmentary rolling wave of conversion rather, it suggests the process The spread of Islam was links outside of the the royalty of major new religion.

traders 1st traveled through Islamic era, the spread of Islam Indonesian archipelago dates to northern Sumatra. Although it is began in the west of the evidence does not suggest a through adjacent areas; was complicated and slow. driven by increasing trade archipelago; in general, traders and kingdoms were the 1st to adopt the -

Other Indonesian areas it the dominant religion end of the 16th century. For overlaid and mixed with existing influences, which shaped the Indonesia, particularly in Java. majority. In the eastern Islamic missionaries were centuries, and, currently, there both religions on these

gradually adopted Islam, making in Java and Sumatra by the the most part, Islam cultural and religious predominant form of Islam in Only Bali retained a Hindu archipelago, both Christian and active in the 16th and 17th are large communities of islands.

The Sultanate of Java, after the Sultanate of Sultanate of Pajang.

Mataram was the 3rd Sultanate in Demak Bintoro and the -

According to Javanese became the ruler of the Mataram support of the kingdom of Pajang current site of Surakarta . Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his

records, Kyai Gedhe Pamanahan area in the 1570s with the to the east, near the Pamanahan was often referred to as ascension.

 

Related Sites for History of Indonesia: Pre-colonial civilizations

• Indonesia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia read History of Indonesia#Pre-colonial civilizations
• Travel to Indonesia : Maps - Hotels and Resort - History - Places ... read History of Indonesia#Pre-colonial civilizations
• Indonesia - Travel Guide, Info & Bookings – Lonely Planet read History of Indonesia#Pre-colonial civilizations

Central Java : A Province of Indonesia

Central Java

Central Java is a province of Indonesia. It forms the middle portion of the island of Java. The administrative capital is Semarang.
Central Java is also a cultural concept that includes the Special Region and city of Yogyakarta. However, administratively the city and surrounding region has been part of a separate special region since Indonesian independence.
Located in the middle of the island of Java, the Central Java province is bordered by West Java and East Java provinces. A small portion of its south region is the Yogyakarta Special Region province, fully enclosed on the landward side by the Central Java province. To the north and the south, the Central Java province faces the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean. Central Java includes offshore islands such as Karimun Jawa Islands in the north, and Nusakambangan in the southwest. Yogyakarta is historically and culturally part of the Central Java region, although it is now a separate administrative entity.
The geography of Central Java is regular with small strips of lowlands near the northern and southern coast with mountain ranges in the centre of the region. To the west lies an active stratovolcano Mount Slamet, and further east is the Dieng Volcanic Complex on Dieng Plateau. Southeast of Dieng lies the Kedu Plain, which is bordered to the east side by the twin volcanoes of Mount Merapi and Mount Merbabu. South of Semarang, lies Mount Ungaran, and to the north-east of the city lies Mount Muria on the most northern tip of Java. To the east near the border with East Java lies Mount Lawu, where its eastern slopes are in the East Java province.
Due to its active volcanic history, volcanic ash makes Central Java highly fertile agriculture land. Paddy fields are extensive, except in the southeastern Gunung Kidul region partly due to the high concentration of limestone and its location in a rain shadow from the prevailing weather.
The largest rivers are the Serayu in the west, which empties into the Indian Ocean, and the Solo which flows into East Java.
On the eve of the World War II in 1942, Central Java was subdivided into 7 residencies which corresponded more or less with the main regions of this area. These residencies were Banjoemas, Kedoe, Pekalongan, Semarang, and Djapara-Rembang plus the so-called Gouvernement Soerakarta and Gouvernement Jogjakarta. However after the local elections in 1957 the role of these residencies were reduced until they finally disappeared.
Nowadays Central Java is divided into 29 regencies (kabupaten) and 6 cities (kota, previously kotamadya and kota pradja), the latter being independent of any regency. These contemporary regencies and cities can further be subdivided into 565 districts (kecamatan). These districts are further subdivided into 7,804 rural communes or "villages" (desa) and 764 urban communes (kelurahan).
Java has been inhabited by humans or their ancestors since prehistorical times. In Central Java and the adjacent territories in East Java remains known as "Java Man" were discovered in the 1890s by the Dutch anatomist and geologist Eugxne Dubois. Java Man belongs to the species Homo erectus. They are believed to be about 1.7 millions years old.
Then about 40,000 years ago, Australoid peoples related to modern Australian Aboriginals and Melanesians colonised Central Java. They were assimilated or replaced by Mongoloid Austronesians by about 3000 BC, who brought with them technologies of pottery, outrigger canoes, the bow and arrow, and introduced domesticated pigs, fowls, and dogs. They also introduced cultivated rice and millet.
Recorded history began in Central Java in the 7th century AD. The writing, as well as Hinduism and Buddhism, were brought to Central Java by Indians from South Asia. Central Java was a centre of power in Java back then.
In 664 AD, the Chinese monk Hui-neng visited the Javanese port city he called HÄ"lxng or Ho-ling, where he translated various Buddhist scriptures into Chinese with the assistance of the Javanese Buddhist monk Jxānabhadra. It isn't precisely known what is meant by the name HÄ"lxng. It used to be considered the Chinese transcription of Kalinga but it now most commonly thought of as a rendering of the name Areng. HÄ"lxng is believed to be located somewhere between Semarang and Jepara.
The 1st dated inscription in Central Java is the Inscription of Canggal which is from 732 AD. This inscription which hailed from Kedu, is written in Sanskrit in Pallava script. In this inscription it is written that a Shaivite king named Sri Sanjaya established a kingdom called Mataram. Under the reign of Sanjaya's dynasty several monuments such as the Prambanan temple complex were built.
In the meantime a competing dynasty arose, which adhered to Buddhism. This was the Sailendra dynasty, also from Kedu, which built the Borobudur temple.
After 820 there is no more mention of HÄ"lxng in Chinese records. This fact coincides with the overthrow of the Sailendras by the Sanjayas who restored Shaivism as the dominant religion. Then in the middle of the 10th century, for unknown reason, the centre of power moved to Eastern Java.
A few centuries later, after the destruction of the great Hindu Majapahit Empire in the 15th - 16th centuries by the Central Javanese Muslim kingdom of Demak, the Javanese centre of power moved back to Central Java. In the meanwhile European traders began to frequent Central Javanese ports. The Dutch established a presence in the region through their East India Company.
After Demak itself collapsed, a new kingdom on the Kedu Plain emerged. This new kingdom, which was also a sultanate, bore the old name of Mataram. Under the reign of Sultan Agung, Mataram was able to conquer almost all of Java and beyond by the 17th century, but internal disputes and Dutch intrigues forced Mataram to cede more and more land to the Dutch. These cessions finally led to several partitions of Mataram. The 1st partition was after the 1755 Treaty of Giyanti. This treaty divided the old kingdom in two, the Sultanate of Surakarta and the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. Then few years later Surakarta was divided again with the establishment of the Mangkunegaran after the Treaty of Salatiga.
During the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, Central Java, as part of the Netherlands East-Indies, a Dutch colony, was handed over to the British. In 1813, the Sultanate of Yogyakarta was also divided with the establishment of the Pakualamanan.
After the British left, the Dutch came back, as decided by the Congress of Vienna. Between 1825 - 1830 the Java War ravaged Central Java. The result of the war was a consolidation of the Dutch power. The power and the territories of the divided kingdom of Mataram were greatly reduced.
However Dutch rule brought modernization to Central Java. In the 1900s the modern province of Central Java, the predecessor of the current one was created. It consisted of five regions or gewesten in Dutch. Surakarta and Yogyakarta were autonomous regions called Vorstenlanden. Then after the Indonesian independence the province of Central Java was formalized on August 15, 1950, excluding Yogyakarta but including Surakarta. Since then there have been no (major) changes in the administrative division of Central Java.
In 1998, preluding the downfall of president Suharto, anti Chinese violence broke out in Surakarta and surrounding areas. Much Chinese property and other buildings were burnt down. In 1999, public buildings in Surakarta were burnt again by supporters of Megawati Soekarnoputri after the Indonesia parliament chose Abdurrahman Wahid instead of Soekarnoputri. They carried out 'sweeping actions' against Western foreigners who reside in this city after the September 11, 2001 attacks.
The May 2006 Java earthquake in the south and Yogyakarta devastated many buildings and caused thousands of deaths and more than 37,000 injuries. Today, some areas are still under reconstruction.
As of the 2010 census, Central Java's population stood at some 32,380,687. As of the 1990 census, the population was 28,516,786. So the population has increased approximately 13.5% in 20 years.
The three biggest regencies in terms of population are: Brebes, Banyumas and Cilacap. Together these regencies make up approximately 16% of the Central Javanese population. Major urban population centres are Greater Semarang, Greater Surakarta and the Brebes-Tegal-Slawi area in the north-west of the province.

Related Sites for Central Java

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Samudera Pasai Sultanate, Muslim Harbour Kingdom on The North Coast of Sumatra

Samudera Pasai Sultanate

Samudera Pasai, also known as Samudera and Pasai sometimes called Samudera Darussalam was a Muslim harbour kingdom on the north coast of Sumatra from the 13th to the 15th centuries CE. It was believed the word Samudera derived from Samudra meaning ocean in Sanskrit. According to Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai, it was said Merah Silu saw an ant as big as a cat, he caught it and ate it and he named the place Samandara. King Merah Silu later converted to Islam, known as Malik ul Salih, he was the sultan in year 1267 CE.
Little evidence has been left to allow for historical study of the kingdom.
Pasai exported its culture, and most importantly its language â€" an early form of Malay written in the Jawi alphabet â€" to a number of islands. Later, this language became the lingua franca among traders in what is now Indonesia and Malaysia.
The establishment of the 1st Muslim centres in Indonesia was probably a result of commercial circumstances. By the 13th century the collapse of Srivijayan power, drew foreign traders harbours on the northern Sumatran shores of the Bay of Bengal, safe from the pirate lairs at the southern end of the Strait of Malacca. Northern Sumatra had a hinterland rich in gold and forest produce, and pepper was being cultivated at the beginning of the 15th century. It was accessible to all the merchants of the archipelago who wanted to meet ships from the Indian Ocean.
In the year 1345, Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler visited Samudra Pasai where he notes in his travel log that the ruler of Samudera Pasai was a pious Muslim, who performed his religious duties in utmost zeal. The madh'hab he observed was Imam Al-Shafi‘i. At that time Samudera Pasai was the end of Dar al-Islam for no territory east of this was ruled by a Muslim ruler. He praised the kindness and hospitality demonstrated by the sultan of Samudera Pasai. Here he stayed for about two weeks in the wooden walled town as a guest of the sultan, and then the sultan provided him with supplies and sent him on his way on one of sultan's own junks to China.
By the end of the 14th century, Samudra-Pasai had become a wealthy commercial centre, giving way in the early 15th century to the better protected harbour of Malacca on the south-west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Majapahit attacked and looted the place in the middle of the 14th century.
Pasai's economic and political power depended almost entirely on foreigners. Muslim traders and teachers probably participated in its administration from the beginning and were bound to introduce religious practices that made them feel at home. The 1st Muslim beachheads in Indonesia, especially Pasai, were to a considerable extent genuine Muslim creations that commanded the loyalty of the local population and encouraged scholarly activities. Similar new harbour kingdoms formed on the northern coast of Java. Tomx Pires, author of the Suma Oriental, writing not long after 1511, stresses the obscure ethnic origins of the founders of Cheribon, Demak, Japara, and Gresik. These Javanese coastal states served commerce with India and China and especially with Malacca, an importer of Javanese rice. The rulers of Malacca, despite their prestigious Srivijayan origin, accepted Islam precisely in order to attract Muslim and Javanese traders to their port.
The Portuguese occupied Pasai in 1521, 10 years after their conquest of Malacca. Through the Portuguese, the place become known in Europe as Pacem. Later, the Acehnese took control of Pasai.

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Moestopo is ...

Moestopo

Major General Professor Moestopo was an Indonesian dentist, freedom fighter, and educator. He was declared a National Hero of Indonesia on 10 November 2007.
Born in Kediri, East Java, Moestopo moved to Surabaya to attend the School of Dentistry there. At 1st becoming a practitioner, his work was interrupted in 1942 when the Japanese occupied Indonesia and Moestopo was arrested by the Kempeitai for looking suspicious. Upon his release, he became a dentist for the Japanese but eventually decided to train as an army officer. After graduating with honours, Moestopo was given command of PETA troops in Sidoarjo; he was later promoted to commander of the troops in Surabaya.
While in Surabaya, during the Indonesian National Revolution Moestopo dealt with British expeditionary forces led by Brigadier Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby. When relations broke down and President Sukarno was called to Surabaya to mend them, Moestopo was offered a job as an adviser but declined. During the war he held several other positions, including leading a squadron of regular soldiers, pickpockets, and prostitutes to spread confusion in the ranks of the enemy Dutch forces. After the war, Moestopo continued to work as a dentist, and in 1961 he founded Moestopo University. He died in Bandung in 1986.
Moestopo was born in Ngadiluwih, Kediri, East Java, Dutch East Indies on 13 July 1913. He was the 6th of eight children born to Raden Koesoemowinoto. After his primary schooling, Moestopo went to the School of Dentistry in Surabaya. His education initially paid for by his elder siblings, Moestopo later took to selling rice to earn his way through university. Taking further education in the field in Surabaya and Yogyakarta, in 1937 he became an assistant orthodontist in Surabaya. From 1941 to 1942, he became the assistant director of STOVIT.
After the Japanese occupied Indonesia in 1942 Moestopo was arrested by the Kempeitai as a suspected Indo ; this suspicion was based on Moestopo's large frame. However, he was soon released and, after serving as an army dentist for the Japanese, received military training in Bogor. Along with future generals Sudirman and Gatot Soebroto, he finished at the top of his class. During his training he wrote a paper on the military applications of bamboo spears tipped with horse feces, for which he received high marks.
After the end of World War II, on 17 August 1945 Indonesia proclaimed its independence; Moestopo maintained control of the nascent military forces in Surabaya and forcibly disarmed the Japanese forces while armed with bamboo spears. In October of that year he declared himself interim Minister of Defence. On 25 October of that year, the 49th Indian Infantry Brigade under the command of Brigadier Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby, arrived in the city; Mallaby sent his intelligence officer Captain Macdonald to meet with Moestopo. According to Macdonald's report, Moestopo was heavily against the coming of the British forces.
When the British then went to Governor of East Java Soeryo seeking a more positive response, Moestopo reportedly wanted the envoys, Macdonald and a naval officer, shot upon arrival. Soeryo, however, proved amenable to the British declaration that they came in peace; he only refused to meet Mallaby on HMS Waveney after Moestopo refused to concede accept the British. The British landed in Surabaya that afternoon, after which Moestopo met with Colonel Pugh; Pugh emphasized that the British were not intending to reinstate Dutch rule, and Moestopo agreed to meet with Mallaby the following morning.
At the meeting, Moestopo reluctantly agreed to disarm the Indonesian forces in the city. However, feelings soured almost immediately. That afternoon, Moestopo may have been forced to assist Mallaby in rescuing Dutch captain Huijer, and on 27 October a Douglas C-47 Skytrain from the capital in Batavia dropped a series of pamphlets signed by General Douglas Hawthorn demanding that the Indonesians surrender their weapons within 48 hours or be executed. As this was against the agreement with Mallaby, Moestopo and his allies took offense to the demands and refused to entertain British requests. Fighting between the forces took place from 28 to 30 October after Moestopo told his troops that the British would attempt to forcibly disarm them; the fighting culminated with Mallaby's death.
When the British forces asked President Sukarno to interfere, the president took Moestopo as an adviser and told the Indonesian forces to stop fighting. Moestopo, unwilling to relinquish his command, chose to go to Gresik instead. Thus, when the Battle of Surabaya continued, Moestopo was no longer in command. By February 1946, when Dutch troops had already returned to Java, he went to Yogyakarta to work as a military educator, teaching for a time at the military academy there.
In mid-1946 Moestopo was sent to Subang, where he led the Terate Troops. Aside from regular military forces, members of the Terate Troops under Moestopo's commanded also included legions of pickpockets and prostitutes who were tasked with spreading confusion in and procuring supplies from behind the Dutch lines. Moestopo also served as the political educator for military forces in Subang. In May 1947, after serving a period as head of the Struggle Bureau in Jakarta, he was transferred to East Java after being wounded in a skirmish with Dutch forces.
After the war, Moestopo moved to Jakarta, where he took office as Section Head for Jaw Surgery at the Army Hospital. In 1952, Moestopo began training other dentists in his off time from his home, giving basic training in hygiene, nutrition, and anatomy. Meanwhile, he came under consideration for position of Minister of Defence for the Wilopo Cabinet, but was ultimately not chosen; instead, he led a series of demonstrations against the parliamentary system.

Moestopo died on 29 Cikutra Cemetery, Bandung.

September 1986 and was buried in -

On 9 November 2007, President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono gave Moestopo the title National Hero of Indonesia; Moestopo received the title along with Adnan Kapau Gani, Ida Anak Agung Gde Agung, and Ignatius Slamet Riyadi based on Presidential Decree Number 66 / TK of 2007. That same year he was awarded the Bintang Mahaputera Adipradana.

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Cirebon : the border of "Sunda" and "Jawa"

Cirebon

The seat of a former Sultanate, the city's West and Central Java border location have seen its history influenced by both Sundanese and Javanese culture as well as Chinese.
Being on the border of "Sunda" and "Jawa" (i.e., Central Java), many of Cirebon's residents speak a dialect that is a mix of Sundanese and Javanese, and it is thought that the word "cirebon" derives from the Javanese word, caruban, meaning "mixed", a reference to the city's mix of Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, and Arabic cultural elements. Alternatively, it could be derived from the Sundanese words of "Ci" (water or river) and "Rebon" ("shrimp"). (Indeed the main production of the city is fishery including shrimps.
Aside from fishery, its harbour, Tanjung Emas, on the Java Sea has been a major hub for timber from Borneo. A small landing site "Penggung" also serves the TNI-AU. The city lies on Jalur Pantura, a major road on the northern coast of Java that stretches from Anyer, passes through Jakarta, and ends at Surabaya.
According to the manuscript Purwaka Caruban Nagari, in 15th century Cirebon started as a small fishing village named Muara Jati. At that time the port of Muara Jati already attracted foreign traders. The port master at that time is Ki Gedeng Alang-Alang appointed by the king of Galuh kingdom located inland in Kawali, Ciamis. Ki Gedeng Alang-Alang moved the port to Lemahwungkuk, 5 kilometres southward. As the new settlement leader, Ki Gedeng Alang-Alang was bestowed the title "Kuwu Cerbon".
A prince from Pajajaran, Prince Walangsungsang, convert to Islam, and was appointed as Adipati of Cirebon with the title Cakrabumi. He established the new kingdom of Cirebon and declared independence from Galuh. The establishment of Cirebon sultanate marked the 1st Islamic rule in Western Java, that grew from modest fishing village of Muara Jati to a busy port of Java northern coast. Cirebon grew as one of the independent sultanates under the leadership of Sunan Gunungjati, in the early 16th century.
The kingdoms of Banten and Mataram fought over Cirebon, which declared its allegiance to Sultan Agung of Mataram. But the later Mataram king ceded the city to the Dutch in the 1677. A treaty in 1705 saw Cirebon become a Dutch protectorate jointly administered by three sultans whose courts rivalled those of Central Java.
During the time of the Dutch "Culture System" a flourishing trade in colonial cash crops attracted many Chinese entrepreneurs and the Chinese influence is still evident in the batik for which Cirebon is famous. Cirebon suffered a famine in 1844, apparently triggered by a combination of drought and the shift from subsistence agriculture to cash crops, particularly indigo and sugarcane.
The city's population was 298,224 at the Indonesia Census of 2010. As with other coastal cities in Indonesia, a large population of ethnic Chinese has flocked into the city as a result of long-term Chinese immigration since the 17th century. Significant suburbs lie within densely populated Cirebon Regency, and the official metropolitan area encompasses this entire regency as well as the city.
Although surrounded by Sundanese-speaking areas in West Java, linguists have stated clearly that Cirebon are Javanese language areas. In addition, this is supported by the Cirebon people referring to themselves as "wong Jawa" ("Javanese people"), and to their language as "basa Jawa" ("Javanese"). However, the Cirebon dialect is sufficiently different from the dominant south central Javanese dialect that it is sometimes assumed to be non-Javanese by outsiders.
Some of the local political elite in Cirebon and surrounding regencies have campaigned for Cirebon city, together with the regencies of Cirebon, Indramayu, Kuningan and Majalengka to be established as a new province - in the same way as Banten Province was formed by splitting it away from West Java. To be a new province it is required that it should be proposed by at least three regencies. Leaders from four of these administrations have given their consent, but Majalengka Regency has turned down the idea and indicated that it would prefer to stay part of West Java. However, the lack of support from the Majalengka area does not preclude Cirebon city and the other three regencies from continuing to promote the idea.
Cirebon itself is known as Grage in the Cirebon dialect of Javanese language, which came from the words "Negara Gede", meaning "Great Kingdom." As a port city, Cirebon attract settlers from around and overseas alike. Cirebon culture was described as Java Pasisiran culture, similar with those of Banten, Batavia, Pekalongan, and Semarang, with notable influences mixture of Chinese, Arabic-Islamic, and European influences.
The Tari Topeng Cirebon, or Cirebon mask dance, is a dance style peculiar to the city. Topeng Cirebon mask dance, inspired by Javanese Panji cycles is one of notable Cirebon traditional dance and quite famous within Indonesian dances.
Cirebon culture also influenced by Islamic Middle Eastern culture, such as the Burokan tradition where people held the image of buraq â€" traditionally made from bamboo frame and paper skin, or other materials â€" around the village accompanied with music. The traditions on held bamboo statues is similar with Sundanese Sisingaan, Betawi Ondel-ondel, or Balinese Ogoh-ogoh, yet differ in its Islamic theme. Burokan usually held during festive occasion such as circumcision or marriage, accompanied by popular Cirebon folk songs, such as tarling.
The remnants of Cirebon sultanate; Kasepuhan, Kanoman, Kaprabonan, and Kacirebonan keratons are now run as cultural institution to preserve Cirebon culture. Each still held their traditional ceremonies and become the patrons of Cirebon arts. Some of royal symbols of Cirebon Sultanate describe their legacy and influences. The banner of Cirebon Sultanate is called "Macan Ali" with Arabic calligraphy arranged to resemble a panther or tiger, describe both Islamic influence and also Hindu Pajajaran Sundanese King Siliwangi tiger banner. Although didn't held real political power anymore, the royal lineage of Cirebon still well respected and held in high prestige among the people of Cirebon.
The royal carriage of Kasepuhan's Singa Barong and Kanoman's Paksi Naga Liman carriage resemble the chimera of three animals; eagle, elephant, and dragon, to symbolyze Indian Hinduism, Arabic Islam, and Chinese influences. The images of Macan Ali, Singa Barong and Paksi Naga Liman also often featured as pattern in Cirebon batik.
As a coastal city, Cirebon's main industry is fishery. Its products include terasi, petis, krupuk udang (shrimp crackers) and various salted fish. Cirebon is famous for its good quality salted fishes, such as jambal roti, juhi (salted cuttlefish), rebon and ebi (dried small shrimp). These products often being seek by visitors, especially Indonesian domestic tourist and visitors from other cities, as oleh-oleh (food souvenirs/gift).
Cirebon is also known for its local cuisines and delicacies, such as empal gentong, nasi lengko (rice mixed with bean sprouts, fried tofu, fried tempeh, topped with peanut sauce and soy sauce), nasi jamblang (rice of various side dishes), tahu gejrot (fried tofu with ground garlic, chili and shallot, topped with thin and sweet soy sauce), tahu petis (dry fried tofu served with petis dip sauce), tahu tek-tek (fried tofu topped with peanut sauce and mixed with vegetables) and ayam panggang (barbecue chicken). Another native food is "Docang" (lontong with sour vegetable soup).
Cirebon is divided into five subdistricts: Harjamukti, Kejaksan, Kesambi, Lemahwungkuk, and Pekalipan.
Cirebon City economy is influenced by the strategic geographical location and characteristics of natural resources so that the structure of its economy dominated by manufacturing, trade, hotels and restaurants, transport and communications and service sectors. Tomx Pires in the Suma Oriental around the year 1513 mentions Cirebon is one of the trade center on the island of Java. After Cirebon taken over by the Dutch East Indies government, in 1859, designated as a transit port of Cirebon import-export goods and the political control center for the region in the interior of Java.
Until 2001, the economic contribution to the City of Cirebon is a processing industry, followed by trade, hotels and restaurants (29.8%), transport and communications sector (13.56%), services sector (6.06%). While other sectors (9.26%) including mining, agriculture, construction, electricity, gas and an average of 2-3%.
Nearly 93% of the population has been underserved by service water from PDAM Cirebon, the majority of customers in the city's water supply to households of the total number of existing connections (65,287).
Since the Dutch East Indies government, Cirebon City has had a hospital named Orange, which unveiled its use on August 31, 1921 and commenced operations from September 1, 1921.
In 2009 in the city of Cirebon has been available about 6 general hospitals, four maternity hospitals, 21 health centers, 15 health centers Maid, 20 Mobile Health Center, and 81 Pharmacies and Drug Stores 31. With the number of medical personnel such as specialist doctors about 94 people, and 116 general practitioners, 37 dentists, 847 nurses and 278 midwives.
The main boulevard is Jalan Siliwangi and it runs from the train station to the canal via the Pasar Pagi, and then the street becomes Jalan Karanggetas along which are most of Cirebon's banks, restaurants, and hotels. There are a number of historic buildings and other key sites in Cirebon, some of them in an advanced state of decay, including the buildings of the several kratons, the Sang Cipta Rasa Grand Mosque, and the Gua Sunyaragi Park.

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Bogor was the capital of Sunda Kingdom

Bogor

Bogor is a city on the island of Java in the West Java province of Indonesia. The city is located in the center of the Bogor Regency (Indonesian: Kabupaten Bogor), 60 kilometers south of the Indonesian capital Jakarta. Bogor itself is a recognized as a municipality (cat); it is an important economic, scientific, cultural and tourist center, as well as a mountain resort.
In the Middle Ages, the city was the capital of Sunda Kingdom and was called Pakuan Pajajaran. During the Dutch colonial era, it was named Buitenzorg and served as the summer residence of the Governor-General of Dutch East Indies. The city was the administrative center of the Netherlands East Indies during the brief British control in the early 19th century.
The 1st mentioning of a settlement at present Bogor dates to the 5th century when the area was part of Tarumanagara, one of the 1st states on the territory of modern Indonesia. After a series of defeats from the neighboring Srivijaya, Tarumanagara was transformed into the Sunda Kingdom, and in 669, the capital of Sunda was built between the small rivers Ciliwung and Cisadane. It was named Pakuan Pajajaran, that in old Sundanese means "a place between the parallel [rivers]", and became the predecessor of the modern Bogor.
Over the next several centuries, Pakuan Pajajaran become one of the largest cities in medieval Indonesia with population reaching 48,000. The name Pajajaran was then used for the entire kingdom, and the capital was simply called Pakuan. The chronicles of that time were written in Sanskrit, which was the language used for official and religious purposes, using the Pallava writing system, on rock stellas called prasasti. The prasasti found in and around Bogor differ in shape and text style from other Indonesian prasasti and are among the main attractions of the city.
In the 9â€"15th centuries, the capital was moving between Pakuan and other cities of the kingdom, and finally returned to Pakuan by King Siliwangi on 3 June 1482 â€" the day of his coronation. Since 1973, this date is celebrated in Bogor as an official city holiday.
In 1579, Pakuan was captured and almost completely destroyed by the army of Sultanate of Banten, ceasing the existence of the State of Sunda. The city was abandoned and remained uninhabited for decades.
In the 2nd half of the 17th century, the abandoned Pakuan as most of West Java, while formally remaining under the Sultanate of Banten, gradually passed under control of the Dutch East India Company. The formal transition occurred on 17 April 1684 by signing an agreement between the Crown Prince of Banten and the VOC.
The first, and temporal, colonial settlement at Pakuan was a camp of lieutenant Tanuwijaya, a Sundanese employed by the VOC who was sent in 1687 to develop the area. It was seriously damaged by the eruption on 4â€"5 January 1699 of the Mount Salak volcano, however the concomitant forest fires removed much forest, leaving much area for the planned rice and coffee plantations. In a short time, several agricultural settlements appeared around Pakuan, the largest being Kampung Baru (lit. "new village"). In 1701, they were combined into an administrative district; Tanuwijaya was chosen as the head of the district and is regarded as the founder of the modern Bogor Regency.
The district was further developed during the 1703 Dutch mission headed by the Inspector General of the VOC Abraham van Riebeeck. The expedition of van Riebeeck performed a detailed study of the Pakuan ruins, discovered and described many archaeological artifacts, including prasasti, and erected buildings for the VOC employees. The area attracted the Dutch by a favorable geographical position and mild climate, preferred over the hot Batavia which was then the administrative center of the Dutch East Indies. In 1744â€"1745, the residence of the Governor-General was built in Pakuan which was hosting the government during the summer.
In 1746, by the order of the Governor-General Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff, the Palace, a nearby Dutch settlement and nine native settlements were merged into an administrative division named Buitenzorg concerns," meaning "without worries" or "carefree," cf. Frederick the Great of Prussia's summer palace outside Potsdam, Sanssouci, with the same meaning in French.) Around the same time, the 1st reference to Bogor as the local names of the city was documented; it was mentioned in the administration report from 7 April 1752 with respect to the part of Buitenzorg adjacent to the Palace. Later this name became used for the whole city as the local alternative to Buitenzorg. This name is believed to originate from the Javanese word bogor meaning sugar palm (Arenga pinnata), which in still used in the Indonesian language. Alternative origins are the old-Javanese word bhagar (meaning cow), or simply the misspelling of "Buitenzorg" by the local residents.
The city grew rapidly in the late 18th â€" early 19th centuries. This growth was partly stimulated by the temporary occupation of the Dutch East Indies by United Kingdom in 1811â€"1815 â€" the British landed on Java and other Sunda Islands to prevent their capture by Napoleonic France which then conquered the Netherlands. The head of the British administration Stamford Raffles moved the administrative center from Batavia to Buitenzorg and implemented new and more efficient management techniques.
On 10 October 1834, Buitenzorg was seriously damaged by another eruption of the Salak volcano caused by an earthquake. Taking into account the seismic activity of the region, the governor's palace and office buildings constructed in 1840â€"1850 were built shorter but sturdier than those built prior to the eruption. The Governor's decree of 1845 prescribed separate settlements of European, Chinese and Arab migrants within the city.
In 1860â€"1880, the largest agricultural school in the colony was established in Buitenzorg. Other scientific institutions including a city library, natural science museum, biology, chemistry, and veterinary medicine laboratories were also constructed during this period. By the end of the 19th century, Buitenzorg became one of the most developed and Westernized cities in Indonesia.
In 1904, Buitenzorg formally became the administrative center of the Dutch East Indies. However, real management remained in Batavia, which hosted most of the administrative offices and the main office of the governor. This status was revoked in the administrative reform of 1924, which divided the colony into provinces and set Buitenzorg as the center of West Java Province.
During World War II Buitenzorg and the entire territory of Dutch East Indies were occupied by Japanese forces; the occupation lasted from 6 March 1942 until the summer of 1945. As part of the efforts by the Japanese to promote nationalist sentiments among the local population the city was given the Indonesian name Bogor. The city had one of the major training centers of the Indonesian militia PETA (Pembela Tanah Air â€" "Defenders of the Motherland").
On 17 August 1945, Soekarno and Hatta proclaimed independence, but the Dutch regained control of the town and adjoining areas. In February 1948, Bogor was included in the quasi-independent state of West Java, which was renamed in April 1948 into Pasundan (Indonesian: Negara Pasundan). This state was established by the Netherlands as a step to transform their former colonial possessions in the East Indies into a dependent federation. In December 1949, Pasundan joined the Republic of the United States of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Serikat, RIS) established at the Dutchâ€"Indonesian Round Table Conference of 23 August â€" 2 November 1949. In February 1950, as a result of defeat of Pasundan in a quick military conflict with the Republic of Indonesia, the city became part of Indonesia, as formalized in August 1950, and its name was officially declared as Bogor.
As part of independent Indonesia, Bogor began to play a significant role in the cultural, scientific and economic development of the country and West Java in particular â€" primarily due to the infrastructure built during the colonial period. Its special position was further reinforced by the transformation of the former summer residence of the governor-general into the summer palace of the President of Indonesia. In the 1990sâ€"2000s, the city regularly hosted various international events, such as ministry-level meetings of the Asia-Pacific institutions and the APEC summit of 15 November 1994. Since 2008, a Christian church congregation in Bogor has been embroiled with Islamic fundamentalists over the building permit for their new church.
The soils are dominated by volcanic sedimentary rocks. Given the proximity of large active volcanoes, the area is considered highly seismic. The total area of green space is 205,000 mx, of which 87,000 mx are Bogor Botanical Gardens, 19,400 mx are taken by 35 parks, 17,200 mx by 24 groves and 81,400 mx are covered with grass.
Several rivers flow through the city toward the Java Sea. The largest ones, Ciliwung and Cisadane, flank the historic city center. Smaller rivers, Cipakancilan, Cidepit, Ciparigi and Cibalok, are guided by cement tubes in many places. It is worth noting that "ci" in the river names merely means "river" in Sundanese, and the actual name begins after it, but the "ci" is nevertheless included into national and international maps. There are several small lakes within the city, including Situ Burung and Situ Gede (lit. Great Lake), with the area of several hectares each. Rivers and lakes occupy 2.89% of the city area.
According to the national census held in Mayâ€"August 2010, 949,066 people were registered in Bogor. The average population density is about 8,000 people per kmx; it reaches 12,571 persons per kmx in the center and drops to 5,866 people per kmx in the southern part.
The rapid population growth in Bogor after 1960 is related to urbanization as well as the influx of workforce from other parts of the country. The birth rate in 2009 was 563 children per 10,000 people, with the mortality value of 272. During the same year, 12,709 permanent resident moved in and 3,391 people left the city. Men constituted 51.06% and women 48.94% of the population; 28.39% of the inhabitants were under 15 years old, 67.42% were aged 15â€"65 years and 3.51% â€" over 65 years. The 2005 estimate of the life expectancy is 71.8 years, which is the highest figure for West Java and one of the highest in Indonesia.
Most population are Sundanese, with considerable numbers of Javanese, Chinese and other, often mixed ethnicities. Virtually all adults are fluent in Indonesian â€" the official language of the country. Sundanese is used at home and in some public areas and events â€" for example, the solemn speech of the mayor at the City Day celebration of 3 June 2010 was delivered in Sundanese. The local dialect of Sundanese significantly differs from the classical version both lexically and phonetically.
The majority of population are Muslims, with just over 5% Christians. However, there are many Christian churches in the city, as well as Buddhist (mostly in the Chinese community ) and Hindu communities.
Bogor City is surrounded by the Bogor Regency but in itself is a separate municipality (cat). The city is divided into six areas (kecamatan), which contain 68 low-level administrative units, 31 of which have the status of settlement and 37 are villages.

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Banten, a province of Indonesia

Banten

Banten is a province of Indonesia. Bordering Jakarta, it is the westernmost province on the island of Java, and its capital is Serang. The population of Banten is projected at 11.75 million people in 2013 at current growth rates, up from over 10.6 million during the 2010 census. Formerly part of the province of West Java, Banten became a separate province in 2000. The province is a transit corridor to Sumatra.
Historically, it has had a culture distinct from the rest of Java and that of the broader Indonesian archipelago. In recent years, however, the northern half, particularly those areas near Jakarta and the Java Sea coast, have experienced rapid rises in population and urbanization, while the southern half, particularly that facing the Indian Ocean, maintains more of its traditional character.
Banten is located near the Sunda Strait’s strategic sea lanes that link Australia and New Zealand to Southeast Asia. Banten’s ports accommodate the excess capacity of sea ports from Jakarta.
Banten is bordered by the Java Sea to the north, the Sunda Strait to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. The Special Capital Region of Jakarta and the province of West Java border Banten to the east.
Banten is classified as flat, 186,320 hectares is classified as corrugated with slopes of between 2% and 15% steepness, while the remaining 118,471 hectares (13%) is classified as steep with slopes over 15%.
In the 5th century, Banten was part of the Kingdom of Tarumanagara. The Lebak relic inscriptions, found in lowland villages on the edge of Ci Danghiyang, Munjul, Pandeglang, Banten, were discovered in 1947 and contains 2 lines of poetry with Pallawa script and Sanskrit language. The inscriptions speak of the courage of king Purnawarman. After the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom, due to an attack by Srivijaya, power in the western Java fell to the Kingdom of Sunda. The Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1200, Chou Ju-kua mentioned that in the early 13th Century, Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java. The source identifies the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden poles (rumah panggung). However, robbers and thieves plagued the country. It was highly possible that the port of Sunda mentioned by Chou Ju-kua was probably refer to the port of Banten.
According to the Portuguese explorer, Tome Pires, in the early 16th century the port of Bantam was an important port within the Kingdom of Sunda along with the ports of Pontang, Cheguide (Cigede), Tangaram (Tangerang), Calapa (Sunda Kelapa) and Chimanuk (estuarine of Cimanuk river).
In 1527, just as the Portuguese fleet was arriving off the coast, newly converted Javanese Muslims under Sunan Gunungjati captured the port of Banten and the surrounding area from the Sundanese leaders and established the Sultanate of Banten. The center of this sultanate, according to J. de Barros, was Banten which was a major port in Southeast Asia rivaling Malacca and Makassar. The city of Banten was located in middle of the bay which is around three miles across. The city was 850 fathoms in length while the seaside town was 400 fathoms in length. Through the middle of town there was a clear river which ships and gale junks could sail into. There is a small tributary of the river extending to the edges of the town. Today, the river isn't so large and only small boats can enter. There was a fortress very near to the town whose walls were made of brick and was seven palms wide. There were wooden defense buildings consisting of two levels and armed with good weapons. The middle of the town square was used for military activities and folk art, and as a market in the morning. The king's palace was located on the southern side of the square. Beside the building was an elevated and flat-roofed, called Srimanganti, which was used by the king when meeting the people. To the west of the square was a great mosque.
In the early 17th century, Banten was an important commercial center on international trade routes in Asia. At the time, the administration and governance of port were very supportive of economic growth. Its territory included the area which is now the province of Lampung in southern Sumatra.
When the Dutch arrived in Indonesia the Portuguese had long been in Banten. The English established a representative site in Banten, a "factory", and were followed by the Dutch. In addition, the French and Danes also came to trade in Banten. In the ensuring competition between the European traders, the Dutch emerged as the winners. The Portuguese fled Banten in after their fleet was destroyed by the Dutch fleet off the coast of Banten.
Banten Province is subdivided into 4 regencies and 4 autonomous cities, listed below with their populations at the 2010 Census.
At the time of the formation of Banten Province, Djamal Hakamudin was appointed as the 1st governor by the Indonesian central government. In 2002, the Banten provincial parliament chose Djoko Munandar and Ratu Atut Chosiyah as governor and deputy governor of Banten respectively. In early 2006, after Djoko Munandar was suspended during an investigation into alleged corruption, Ratu Atut Chosiyah was appointed as acting governor. Finally, on 6 December 2006, a provincial election was held which was won by Ratu Atut Choisiyah as governor and Mohammad Masduki as deputy governor; both served in the period 2007-2011.

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Aceh Sultanate was Sultanate Centered in the Modern Day Indonesian Province of Aceh

Aceh Sultanate

The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centered in the modern day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a major regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries, before experiencing a long period of decline. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh.
At its peak it was a formidable enemy of the Sultanate of Johor and Portuguese-controlled Malacca, both on the Malayan Peninsula, as all three attempted to control the trade through the Strait of Malacca and the regional exports of pepper and tin with fluctuating success. In addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted center of Islamic scholarship and trade.
Aceh early history is unclear, but it was likely founded by the Cham people. The Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. In 1471, the Champa king Syah Pau Kubah sent his son Syah Pau Ling to rule over Aceh when the capital Vijaya, was sacked by the Vietnamese Le Dynasty.
The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century. The Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru. His son Alauddin al-Kahar extended the domains farther south into Sumatra, but was less successful in his attempts to gain a foothold across the strait, though he made several attacks on both Johor and Malacca, with the support along with men and firearms from Suleiman the Magnificent's Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis.
On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at "Acheen" aboard the Lioness as the 1st of three planned voyages to the East Indies. The crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. Crew member John Davis claims the party was subsequently attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead and captured.
Internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanate's control over most of Sumatra. He also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula. The strength of his formidable fleet was brought to an end with a disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, when the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy all his ships and 19,000 troops according to Portuguese account. Aceh forces wasn't destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultan's son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor. During his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity.
After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana. Aceh's previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms' population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Aceh's control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a largely symbolic title. By the 1680s, a Persian visitor could describe a northern Sumatra where "every corner shelters a separate king or governor and all the local rulers maintain themselves independently and don't pay tribute to any higher authority."
Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the 1st Islamic state in Southeast Asia, and succeeded Islamic missionary work of Malacca after it was conquered by the Roman Catholic Portuguese. It was called the "porch of Mecca," and became a center of Islamic scholarship, where the Qur'an and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, and the Indian Nuruddin ar-Raniri.
Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy. It was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state. As Aceh lost political cohesion in the 17th century, it saw its trading importance yielded to the Dutch East India Company, who became the dominant military and economic power in the region following the successful siege of Malacca in 1641.
In the 1820s, as Aceh produced over half the world's supply of pepper, a new leader, Tuanku Ibrahim, was able to restore some authority to the Sultanate and gain control over the "pepper rajas" who were nominal vassals of the Sultan by playing them off against each other. He rose to power during the Sultanate of his brother, Muhammad Syah, and was able to dominate the reign of his successor Sulaiman Syah, before taking the Sultanate himself, under the title Sultan Ali Alauddin Mansur Syah (1857â€"1870). He extended Aceh's effective control southward at just the time when the Dutch were consolidating their holdings northward.
Britain, heretofore guarding the independence of Aceh in order to keep it out of Dutch hands, re-evaluated its policy and concluded the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of Sumatra, which allowed for Dutch control throughout Sumatra in exchange for concessions in the Gold Coast and equal trading rights in northern Aceh. The treaty was tantamount to a declaration of war on Aceh, and the Aceh War followed soon after in 1873. As the Dutch prepared for war, Mahmud Syah appealed for international help, but no one was willing or able to assist.
In 1874 the Sultan abandoned the capital, withdrawing to the hills, while the Dutch announced the annexation of Aceh. He eventually died of cholera, as did many combatants on both sides, but the Acehnese proclaimed a grandson of Tuanku Ibrahim Sultan. The local rulers of Acehnese ports nominally submitted to Dutch authority in order to avoid a blockade, but they used their income to support the resistance.
However, eventually many of them compromised with the Dutch, and the Dutch were able establish a fairly stable government in Aceh with their cooperation, and get the Sultan to surrender in 1903. After his death in 1907, no successor was named, but the resistance continued to fight for some time.

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Indonesian Language

Indonesian language

Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a standardized register of Malay, an Austronesian language which has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries.
Indonesia is the 4th most populous nation in the world. Of its large population, the number of people who speak Indonesian fluently is fast approaching 100%, making Indonesian one of the most widely spoken languages in the world.
Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are often fluent in another regional language which are commonly used at home and within the local community. Most formal education, and nearly all national media and other forms of communication, are conducted in Indonesian. In East Timor, which was an Indonesian province from 1975 to 1999, Indonesian is recognised by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being English), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese.
The Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia. This term is occasionally found in English. Indonesian is sometimes called "Bahasa" by English speakers, though this literally just means "language".
Indonesian has 23 million native speakers and 140 million 2nd language speakers, who speak it alongside their local mother tongue. It is used extensively as a 1st language by Indonesians in urban areas, and as a 2nd language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia.
The VOA and BBC use Indonesian as their standard for broadcasting in Malay. Indonesian is 80% cognate with Malaysian. In Australia, Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with Japanese and Mandarin, taught in some schools as part of the Languages Other Than English programme.
Indonesian is a standardized register of "Riau Malay", which despite its common name isn't the Malay dialect native to Riau, but rather the Classical Malay of the Malaccan royal courts. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium. Although it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language, the Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by Srivijayan empire. Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago), marked by Srivijaya inscriptions and in other inscriptions of coastal areas of the archipelago, such as those discovered in Java. Trade contacts carried on by some ethnic peoples at the time was the main vehicle to spread the Old Malay language, as it was the communication device amongst the traders. By that time, the Old Malay language had become a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago.
Indonesian was elevated to the status of official language with the Indonesian declaration of independence in 1945, drawing inspiration from the Sumpah Pemuda event in 1928. Indonesian (in its standard form) is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several aspects, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. These differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the "bazaar Malay" that was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English. The question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. High Malay was the official language used in the court of the Johor Sultanate and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of Riau-Lingga, while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports in archipelago. Some linguists have argued that it was the more-common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language.
Whilst Indonesian is spoken as a mother tongue by only a small proportion of Indonesia's large population, over 200 million people regularly make use of the national language, with varying degrees of proficiency. In a nation which boasts more than 300 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country. Use of the national language is abundant in the media, government bodies, schools, universities, workplaces, amongst members of the Indonesian upper-class or nobility and also in many other formal situations.
Standard and formal Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts; however, few native Indonesian speakers use the formal language in their daily conversations. While this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world, the degree of "correctness" of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) by comparison to its written form is noticeably low. This is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, and Chinese dialects) with Indonesian. This results in various "regional" Indonesian dialects, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town. This phenomenon is amplified by the use of Indonesian slang, particularly in the cities.
The status of Indonesian language is the official language of the Republic of Indonesia, thus its usage is encouraged throughout Indonesia. The Constitution of Indonesia 1945 Chapter XV specifies the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia. The Indonesian law No. 24 year 2009 Chapter III Section 25 to 45 mentioned specifically about Indonesian language status. The function of Indonesian language is as the national identity, national pride, and unifying language among diverse Indonesian ethnic groups, and also serves as a communication vehicle among Indonesian provinces and different regional cultures in Indonesia. The language is used as national official language, the language for education, communication, transaction and trade documentation, used for the development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media in Indonesia. It has become one of the national symbols of Indonesia.
According to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language is the language proclaimed as the unifying language during Sumpah Pemuda in 28 October 1928, developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization. It was mentioned that the language was based on Riau Malay, though linguists note that the isn't the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the Riau court. Since its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with nationalist political agenda on unifying Indonesia. This status has made Indonesian language relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnics' languages, most notably Javanese as the majority ethnic group in Indonesia, and Dutch as the previous colonizer. As a result, Indonesian has wider sources of loanwords, as compared to Malay. It was suggested that the Indonesian language is an artificial language made official in 1928. By artificial it means that Indonesian was designed by academics rather than evolving naturally as most common languages have, in order to accommodate the political purpose of establishing an official unifying language of Indonesia. By borrowing heavily from numerous other languages it expresses a natural linguistic evolution; in fact, it is as natural as the next language, as demonstrated in its exceptional capacity for absorbing foreign vocabulary.
The disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to a rift between the two standards. This has been based more upon political nuance and the history of its standardization than on cultural reasons, and as a result there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's standard among Malaysians and Indonesians. In Malaysia, the national language is Malaysian; in Indonesia, it is Indonesian. The Malaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely variants of the same language, while the Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit related, languages. The result of this attitude is that the Indonesians feel little need to harmonize their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas the Malaysians are keener to coordinate the evolution of the language with the Indonesians. although the 1972 Indonesian alphabet reform was largely a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian.

The Indonesian Language was originally written using the system as known as van Ophuijsen system, named from the advisor of the system, Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen. This spelling system was most influenced by the then current Dutch spelling system. In 1947, the spelling was changed into Republican Spelling or Soewandi Spelling. This spelling changed formerly-spelled oe into u (however, the spelling influenced other aspects in orthography, for example writing reduplicated words). All of the other changes were a part of the Perfected Spelling System, an officially-mandated spelling reform in 1972. Some of the old spellings (which were derived from Dutch orthography) do survive in proper names; for example, the name of a former president of Indonesia is still sometimes written Soeharto, and the central Java city of Yogyakarta is sometimes written Jogjakarta.
A modern dialect of Malay, Indonesian has also borrowed from other languages, including Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Dutch, Chinese and Austronesian languages. It is estimated that there are some 750 Sanskrit loanwords in modern Indonesian, 1,000 Arabic loans, some of Persian and Hebrew origin, some 125 words of Portuguese origin and 10,000 loanwords from Dutch The vast majority of Indonesian words, however, come from the root lexical stock of its Austronesian (incl. Old Malay) heritage. There are also words derived from Javanese, e.g. aku (meaning I/ me (informal) and its derivative form, mengaku (to admit or confess).
The study of Indonesian etymology and loan words reveals both its historical and social contexts. Examples are the early Sanskrit borrowings, the borrowings from Arabic and Persian during the time of the establishment of Islam in particular, and the ones from Dutch during the colonial period. Linguistic history and cultural history are clearly linked.
The loanwords from Arabic are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with Islam.
Alongside Malay, Portuguese was the lingua franca for trade throughout the archipelago from the sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century. The Portuguese were among the 1st westerners to sail eastwards to the "Spice Islands". Loanwords from Portuguese were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian words derived from Portuguese include meja, boneka (from boneca = doll), jendela (from janela = window), gereja (from igreja = church), bendera (from bandeira = flag), sepatu (from sapato = shoes), keju (from queijo = cheese), mentega (from manteiga = butter), and Minggu (from domingo = Sunday).
The former colonial power, the Netherlands, left a sizable amount of vocabulary that can be seen in words such as polisi, kualitas (from kwaliteit = quality), rokok (from roken = smoking cigarettes), korupsi (from corruptie = corruption), kantor (from kantoor = office), resleting (from ritssluiting = zipper) and gratis (from gratis = free). These Dutch loanwords, and many other non-Italo-Iberian, European language loanwords which came via Dutch, cover all aspects of life. Some Dutch loanwords, having clusters of several consonants, pose difficulties to speakers of Indonesian. This problem is usually solved by insertion of the schwa. For example Dutch schroef [ˈsxruf] â†' sekrup [səˈkrup] (screw (n.)).
As modern Indonesian draws many of its words from foreign sources, there are many synonyms. For example, Indonesian has three words for "book", i.e. pustaka, kitab (from Arabic) and buku (from Dutch boek); however, each has a slightly different meaning. A pustaka is often connected with ancient wisdom or sometimes with esoteric knowledge. A derived form, perpustakaan means a library. A kitab is usually a religious scripture or a book containing moral guidance. The Indonesian words for the Bible and Gospel are Alkitab and Injil, both directly derived from Arabic. The book containing the penal code is also called the kitab. Buku is the most common word for books.
There are direct borrowings from various other languages of the world, such as "karaoke" from Japanese, and "modem" from English.
Generally Indonesian does not make use of grammatical gender, and there are only selected words that use natural gender. For instance, the same word is used for he/him and she/her or for his and her (dia/ia/-nya). No real distinction is made between "girlfriend" and "boyfriend", both pacar (although more colloquial terms as cewek girl/girlfriend and cowok guy/boyfriend can also be found). A majority of Indonesian words that refer to people generally have a form that does not distinguish between the sexes. However, unlike English, distinction is made between older or younger. For example, adik refers to a younger sibling of either sex and kakak refers to an older sibling, again, either male or female. In order to specify the natural gender of a noun, an adjective must be added. Thus, adik laki-laki corresponds to "younger brother" but really means "male younger sibling".
There are some words that have gender, for instance putri means "daughter", and putra means "son" and also pramugara means "air steward" and pramugari meaning "air stewardess" (female flight attendant). Another example would be olahragawan, which equates to "sportsman", and olahragawati, meaning sportswoman. Often, words like these (or certain suffixes such as "-a" and "-i" or "-wan" and "wati") are absorbed from other languages (in these cases, from Sanskrit through the Old Javanese language). In some regions of Indonesia such as Sumatera and Jakarta, abang (a gender-specific term meaning "older brother") is commonly used as a form of address for older siblings/ males, whilst kakak (a non-gender specific term (meaning "older sibling") is often used to mean "older sister". Similarly, more direct influences from dialects such as Javanese and Chinese languages have also seen further use of other gendered words in Indonesian. For example: Mas (Jav. = older brother), M'bak (Jav. = older sister), Koko (older brother) and Cici (older sister).

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